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The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo. Art: in France Fiercely opposed by contemporary classicistiche currents and tardobarocche, the rococo was considered negatively throughout the nineteenth century until the first critical analysis carried out by the brothers De Goncourt, who warned both the close relationship with a particular conception of social life, both the aesthetic revolutionary informing him. Ideologically the rococo is the artistic expression of the aristocracy of the cosmopolitan come at the end of its historical function, which masks the conscience of the decline with a philosophy of evasion from reality, creating a fictional world on the myth of the eternal youth and of the unruffled serenity. Social behavior is then adjusted on concepts of refinement and elegance, until the frivolity of the one part and the philosophical libertinism from another. The escape from reality occurs both on the intellectual level and on the existential and every detail of the environment should be granted to the way of life: everything must be beautiful, indeed "nice", since the concept of beauty comprises itself only what is delicate and fragile, nuanced, clear, picturesque. Under this aspect we understand then the "necessity" of a particular type of clothing (vestments read of silk and muslin in pastel shades, white wig which embellishes the face and makes without age, then eternally young), which corresponds to a particular type of environment in which to live. The aesthetic revolution of the rococo occurs in fact in the harmonious interplay of all the details of the furnishings, which contribute equally to all the arts (and the "minor" are evaluated obviously on a par with those traditionally "noble") refer to the creation of organic environments and homogeneous. The historical fact from which you begin the rococo (even if the premises are traceable since the last years of the XVII century) is the transfer of the court from Versailles in Paris after the death of Louis XIV (1715), commissioned by the regent Duke of Orléans, the fact that determined for the nobility the need to reorganize the private palaces of the capital, by long years inhabited only occasionally. To obviate the confined spaces developed rapidly in the period of the regency the taste for the pale walls, "open" by the profusion of mirrors and illeggiadrite stucco work light for the small furniture and lacquered in pastel shades, for executives also from the light shades, for the ornaments of minimum size and subject frivolous, in clear opposition to furnishings Louis XIV, sumptuous (but also heavy) dominated by dark colors and by the gilding. Rare were in France the great architectural realizations, which usufruirono structures baroque still as much as very sober and functional, aimed in practice as a support of the decoration, most of that interior facades, inferred from a whole series of repertories (it is recalled that in 1734 by J. A. Meissonnier, whose drawings influenced deeply on production of carvers and goldsmiths of the epoch); this decoration was based on infinite variations, better if asymmetrical, the curved line which defined natural elements (leaves, flowers, animals) according to a spirit graceful that often referred to exotic elegance and fabulous of the East (masterpieces in this sense are the Hôtel de Matignon of No. Pineau of 1720-31 and the Hôtel de Soubise of G. Boffrand, also decorated by F. Boucher, 1736). In the french architecture are in fact much more frequent the constructions of small dimensions for parks and gardens (readapted sometimes these "English" according to the canons of the picturesque, more suited to the new taste): the pavilions of hunting, the "Casini of delights", sans-soucis, the monrepos, the ermitages, all connected with the needs of worldly life. The sculpture was a fine decorative exclusively, softening the shapes, enriched by descriptive details and generally portraying mythological characters according to a declared intention erotic. The painting, from the clear color and brilliant spread out to touch and nuances on a quick drawing and broken, has narrow analogies with the porcelain, engraving, the fabrics for furnishings, since depicts pastoral scenes, idylls, feasts galanti and campestri, erotic episodes, Daily chronicles, expressing with ironic accents malicious or the principles of a life frivolous but refined. For France it is customary to distinguish a first period Regency (1715-30) in the generation of the architect G. M. Oppenordt of decorator F. A. Vassé and of the ebanist Ch. Cressent, of painters J.-A. Watteau, J. B. Pater and J.-M. Nattier; a period rocaille (1730-45) that finds its highest expression in Meissonnier, Pineau, in Boucher and Chardin; a last period Pompadour (1745-64) involuto already in certain decorative unwieldiness and in part influenced by linearismo classicist, represented by the architect J. A. Gabriel, decorating by J. Verbeckt and J. H. Fragonard. Art: in other European Countries Outside France the rococo became widespread in short assolutistiche that assumed as a model of social life the French nobility, idealized as depositary of knowing how to live and taste. In the decade 1730-40 artists and French craftsmen were in fact invited in all the courts of Europe starting with the phenomenon of internationalisation of the figurative culture typical of the entire second half of the century. This phenomenon lived precisely on the figure of the wandering artist (For Italy it suffices to think of Tiepolo and Rosalba Carriera), which stimulated above all the development of Crafts on the canons are common to the whole of Europe, according to a process governed not only by the evolution of taste but also, and declared by the same rulers, by the laws of economic expansion. Similar movements to rococo, even if not totally identified with it, were manifested in England (in furniture Chippendale, through whose interpretations, moreover, the rococo taste was introduced in America and in certain themes pictorial from Hogarth to Gainsborough) and in Spain (churriguerismo). For Italy it can speak of rococo especially for decorative arts, sharers in the international taste (the stuccoes by Serpotta; the "Chinese cabinet" for the Palace of Portici, now at Capodimonte, everything in porcelain and mirrors), while architectural constructions to capricious plants curves took place only in private buildings of small dimensions (Villa Palagonia in Bagheria near Palermo), being still alive the baroque tradition, linked in particular to the committenza ecclesiastical. For what concerns the Italian mobile, the taste of the French rococo developed through the partial adoption of stylistic elements of Louis XV and the progressive transformation of elements of the Baroque ornamentation (style Baroque). In Venice, in the framework of the independent development (and addressed in large part to the foreign clients) of that painting, you can define in the Rococo style the choice of subjects as the whim, fantastic view and the scene of life (Marco Ricci, Zais, Guardi and Longhi) and the widespread use of pastel and watercolor (Rosalba Carriera). The style of the rococo met its major development in the German-speaking countries according to two destinations precise and clearly differentiated: on the one hand the architecture and the craft to the courts, who elaborated also original forms but always inside the French model, on the other hand the architecture, understood as a synthesis between space and decoration, of churches and convents, that represents the last great autonomous expression of this particular branch of the architecture. Around the numerous German courts proliferarono castles, the noble residences, small constructions of pleasure, that assumed in size emphatic or even rhetorical plants to curved lines and elliptical of private construction french (only the royal castles you remade the monumentality classicist Versailles) and developed the decoration in tones more or less moderate, according to precise local variants (residence for the prince-bishop of Würzburg, 1719-44, B. Neumann, with the collaboration of R. de cooked and J. L. Hildebrandt, and frescoes by Tiepolo; Palazzina di Caccia of Amalienburg In Park Nymphenburg in Munich, 1734, F. de Cuvilliés). Religious architecture flourished particularly in Bavaria and in Bohemia, with the brothers Asam, D. Zimmermann, Dientzenhofer and, in Austria, especially with Fischer von Erlach, who developed premises already existing in the architecture local tardobarocca to arrive to build buildings characterised by the spaciousness and brightness (a unique space to plant round, elliptical or oval, white walls, large and numerous windows, stuccoes and gilding that underline the structural elements and framing canvases and frescoes), where they perform a perfect harmony and an interrelation total between the constructive elements and figurative ones. Also the pictorial production not assumed an autonomous role but, given the particular needs, was directed almost exclusively to illustrate historical subjects-celebration in allegorical tones-mythological or religious themes; it then developed into large canvases and frescoes that, despite the considerable lightness and vaporosità execution, derive from the baroque decoration Italiana (F. A. Maulbertsch, J. W. Bergl). General description Loc. English (abbreviation of popular art, popular art) used in Italian as sf. Introduced by scholars L. Flieder and R. Banham and adopted in 1961 by the critic English L. Alloway, the term indicates an artistic movement of avant-garde born in parallel in Great Britain and the United States around 1955, as a reaction to the painting of abstract expressionists. The artists of the pop art draw shapes and language from the repertoire of the mass-media, i.e. of the means of communication and mass culture: television, advertising images, photographs, comics, consumables, etc.; they therefore serve images and objects that already exist as, manipulated and presented in various ways, you load a new expressiveness. The aim of the movement is to subtract the artistic operation to its character of unique experience and subjective, for riaccostare instead art to everyday reality. The figuration of the trivial and daily life of pop art, mediated by the different experiences of Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism and Surrealism, had its first definition in Great Britain through the activities of the Independent Group of London (1953-58). The first opera English pop, created by Richard Hamilton, was inscribed in the exhibition "This Is Tomorrow" held in London in 1956. In the United States the pop art arose from the exhaustion of abstract experiences, by the stops at the end of the informal and especially by exaltations of the "object consumed" by artists of the New Dada. The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo. Art: in France Fiercely opposed by contemporary classicistiche currents and tardobarocche, the rococo was considered negatively throughout the nineteenth century until the first critical analysis carried out by the brothers De Goncourt, who warned both the close relationship with a particular conception of social life, both the aesthetic revolutionary informing him. Ideologically the rococo is the artistic expression of the aristocracy of the cosmopolitan come at the end of its historical function, which masks the conscience of the decline with a philosophy of evasion from reality, creating a fictional world on the myth of the eternal youth and of the unruffled serenity. Social behavior is then adjusted on concepts of refinement and elegance, until the frivolity of the one part and the philosophical libertinism from another. The escape from reality occurs both on the intellectual level and on the existential and every detail of the environment should be granted to the way of life: everything must be beautiful, indeed "nice", since the concept of beauty comprises itself only what is delicate and fragile, nuanced, clear, picturesque. Under this aspect we understand then the "necessity" of a particular type of clothing (vestments read of silk and muslin in pastel shades, white wig which embellishes the face and makes without age, then eternally young), which corresponds to a particular type of environment in which to live. The aesthetic revolution of the rococo occurs in fact in the harmonious interplay of all the details of the furnishings, which contribute equally to all the arts (and the "minor" are evaluated obviously on a par with those traditionally "noble") refer to the creation of organic environments and homogeneous. The historical fact from which you begin the rococo (even if the premises are traceable since the last years of the XVII century) is the transfer of the court from Versailles in Paris after the death of Louis XIV (1715), commissioned by the regent Duke of Orléans, the fact that determined for the nobility the need to reorganize the private palaces of the capital, by long years inhabited only occasionally. To obviate the confined spaces developed rapidly in the period of the regency the taste for the pale walls, "open" by the profusion of mirrors and illeggiadrite stucco work light for the small furniture and lacquered in pastel shades, for executives also from the light shades, for the ornaments of minimum size and subject frivolous, in clear opposition to furnishings Louis XIV, sumptuous (but also heavy) dominated by dark colors and by the gilding. Rare were in France the great architectural realizations, which usufruirono structures baroque still as much as very sober and functional, aimed in practice as a support of the decoration, most of that interior facades, inferred from a whole series of repertories (it is recalled that in 1734 by J. A. Meissonnier, whose drawings influenced deeply on production of carvers and goldsmiths of the epoch); this decoration was based on infinite variations, better if asymmetrical, the curved line which defined natural elements (leaves, flowers, animals) according to a spirit graceful that often referred to exotic elegance and fabulous of the East (masterpieces in this sense are the Hôtel de Matignon of No. Pineau of 1720-31 and the Hôtel de Soubise of G. Boffrand, also decorated by F. Boucher, 1736). In the french architecture are in fact much more frequent the constructions of small dimensions for parks and gardens (readapted sometimes these "English" according to the canons of the picturesque, more suited to the new taste): the pavilions of hunting, the "Casini of delights", sans-soucis, the monrepos, the ermitages, all connected with the needs of worldly life. The sculpture was a fine decorative exclusively, softening the shapes, enriched by descriptive details and generally portraying mythological characters according to a declared intention erotic. The painting, from the clear color and brilliant spread out to touch and nuances on a quick drawing and broken, has narrow analogies with the porcelain, engraving, the fabrics for furnishings, since depicts pastoral scenes, idylls, feasts galanti and campestri, erotic episodes, Daily chronicles, expressing with ironic accents malicious or the principles of a life frivolous but refined. For France it is customary to distinguish a first period Regency (1715-30) in the generation of the architect G. M. Oppenordt of decorator F. A. Vassé and of the ebanist Ch. Cressent, of painters J.-A. Watteau, J. B. Pater and J.-M. Nattier; a period rocaille (1730-45) that finds its highest expression in Meissonnier, Pineau, in Boucher and Chardin; a last period Pompadour (1745-64) involuto already in certain decorative unwieldiness and in part influenced by linearismo classicist, represented by the architect J. A. Gabriel, decorating by J. Verbeckt and J. H. Fragonard. Art: in other European Countries Outside France the rococo became widespread in short assolutistiche that assumed as a model of social life the French nobility, idealized as depositary of knowing how to live and taste. In the decade 1730-40 artists and French craftsmen were in fact invited in all the courts of Europe starting with the phenomenon of internationalisation of the figurative culture typical of the entire second half of the century. This phenomenon lived precisely on the figure of the wandering artist (For Italy it suffices to think of Tiepolo and Rosalba Carriera), which stimulated above all the development of Crafts on the canons are common to the whole of Europe, according to a process governed not only by the evolution of taste but also, and declared by the same rulers, by the laws of economic expansion. Similar movements to rococo, even if not totally identified with it, were manifested in England (in furniture Chippendale, through whose interpretations, moreover, the rococo taste was introduced in America and in certain themes pictorial from Hogarth to Gainsborough) and in Spain (churriguerismo). For Italy it can speak of rococo especially for decorative arts, sharers in the international taste (the stuccoes by Serpotta; the "Chinese cabinet" for the Palace of Portici, now at Capodimonte, everything in porcelain and mirrors), while architectural constructions to capricious plants curves took place only in private buildings of small dimensions (Villa Palagonia in Bagheria near Palermo), being still alive the baroque tradition, linked in particular to the committenza ecclesiastical. For what concerns the Italian mobile, the taste of the French rococo developed through the partial adoption of stylistic elements of Louis XV and the progressive transformation of elements of the Baroque ornamentation (style Baroque). In Venice, in the framework of the independent development (and addressed in large part to the foreign clients) of that painting, you can define in the Rococo style the choice of subjects as the whim, fantastic view and the scene of life (Marco Ricci, Zais, Guardi and Longhi) and the widespread use of pastel and watercolor (Rosalba Carriera). The style of the rococo met its major development in the German-speaking countries according to two destinations precise and clearly differentiated: on the one hand the architecture and the craft to the courts, who elaborated also original forms but always inside the French model, on the other hand the architecture, understood as a synthesis between space and decoration, of churches and convents, that represents the last great autonomous expression of this particular branch of the architecture. Around the numerous German courts proliferarono castles, the noble residences, small constructions of pleasure, that assumed in size emphatic or even rhetorical plants to curved lines and elliptical of private construction french (only the royal castles you remade the monumentality classicist Versailles) and developed the decoration in tones more or less moderate, according to precise local variants (residence for the prince-bishop of Würzburg, 1719-44, B. Neumann, with the collaboration of R. de cooked and J. L. Hildebrandt, and frescoes by Tiepolo; Palazzina di Caccia of Amalienburg In Park Nymphenburg in Munich, 1734, F. de Cuvilliés). Religious architecture flourished particularly in Bavaria and in Bohemia, with the brothers Asam, D. Zimmermann, Dientzenhofer and, in Austria, especially with Fischer von Erlach, who developed premises already existing in the architecture local tardobarocca to arrive to build buildings characterised by the spaciousness and brightness (a unique space to plant round, elliptical or oval, white walls, large and numerous windows, stuccoes and gilding that underline the structural elements and framing canvases and frescoes), where they perform a perfect harmony and an interrelation total between the constructive elements and figurative ones. Also the pictorial production not assumed an autonomous role but, given the particular needs, was directed almost exclusively to illustrate historical subjects-celebration in allegorical tones-mythological or religious themes; it then developed into large canvases and frescoes that, despite the considerable lightness and vaporosità execution, derive from the baroque decoration Italiana (F. A. Maulbertsch, J. W. Bergl). General description Loc. English (abbreviation of popular art, popular art) used in Italian as sf. Introduced by scholars L. Flieder and R. Banham and adopted in 1961 by the critic English L. Alloway, the term indicates an artistic movement of avant-garde born in parallel in Great Britain and the United States around 1955, as a reaction to the painting of abstract expressionists. The artists of the pop art draw shapes and language from the repertoire of the mass-media, i.e. of the means of communication and mass culture: television, advertising images, photographs, comics, consumables, etc.; they therefore serve images and objects that already exist as, manipulated and presented in various ways, you load a new expressiveness. The aim of the movement is to subtract the artistic operation to its character of unique experience and subjective, for riaccostare instead art to everyday reality. The figuration of the trivial and daily life of pop art, mediated by the different experiences of Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism and Surrealism, had its first definition in Great Britain through the activities of the Independent Group of London (1953-58). The first opera English pop, created by Richard Hamilton, was inscribed in the exhibition "This Is Tomorrow" held in London in 1956. In the United States the pop art arose from the exhaustion of abstract experiences, by the stops at the end of the informal and especially by exaltations of the "object consumed" by artists of the New Dada. The spanish painter (Fuente de Cantos, Badajoz, 1598-Madrid 1664). He trained in Seville, then the lively center of a figurative culture of the realistic nature. In 1617 he opened his own shop at Llerena, in Extremadura, but in 1629 he settled back to Seville and remained there (except a stay in Madrid in 1634) until 1659 ca. When reduced, in conditions of extreme poverty, he moved to Madrid where he tried in vain to be inserted in the cultural climate of the city. The activity of Zurbaran is esplicò almost exclusively in the production of sacred images of very high number (ca. 600) and quality sometimes not sublime, due in part to the widespread use of collaborators, in part to moments of crisis of the painter, especially in the last years of life when it was considered passed by his contemporaries in favor of Murillo. The style of Zurbaran comprises both the naturalism typical sevillian, developed and brought to the highest outcomes for the use of color, always lucid and dazzling even in dark tones; both the disegnativa tradition of Mannerism Spanish, which carries the painter to solve his compositions in the figures of the first floor, from elegant contours and incisors, clearly separated from the neutral funds or dark, outside any historical ambience. Most of his works were performed as devotional cycles for churches and monasteries of Seville and other Spanish cities (currently dispersed among various museums), sincerely partakers of the religious sentiment popular (paintings for the Merced Calzada in Seville, 1629; paintings for Nuestra Senora de la Defension at Jerez de la Frontera, 1638-39). The famous series of saints who pierce by misticheggianti cues to celebration decorative elegantly. Around 1633 Zurbaran devoted himself also for a short time to Natura morta, leaving one of the greatest masterpieces of the genre, of absolute purity: the dish of cedars, a basket of oranges and cup with pink (1633, already in Florence, the Contini Bonacossi Collection, from 1973 in Los Angeles, Pasadena, Norton Simon Foundation). The influence of Zurbaran, rather limited in Spain, was instead huge in Latin America, especially in Peru, where the painter sent numerous works during the period 1640-58. Murillo, Bartolomé Esteban The spanish painter Seville (1617-1682). The artistic beginnings of Murillo were essentially linked to the city Christmas, first as a student of mediocre Juan del Castillo, then as independent painter, sensitive to the art of Ribera, Zurbarán, Velázquez; the youthful works, strong in design and modeled but substantially little originals the also demonstrate a sharer of the generic caravaggismo hovering in Spanish environment. Contacts with the Italian painting, through B. The Cavallino and A. Vaccari, Flemish and (perhaps visited the royal collections during a trip to Madrid in 1648, where he could study the works of Rubens and Van Dyck), spurred an original interpretation of colorismo veneto to which joins a light use deeply scenographic and baroque; these characters already appear in the eleven paintings with miracles of Franciscan Saints for the convent of the homonymous order in Seville (1645-48), today dispersed, and in the birth of the Virgin (Paris, Louvre), triumphal beginnings of a long activity at the service of the confraternities and religious orders within which Murillo proved to be sincere interpreter and convincing of mysticism counter-reformist. The interpretation realistic gently, popular folk and communicative of the sacred episode, increasingly evident in the works ripe (cycle for the Hospice of charity in Seville, ca. 1670-80: the healing of the paralytic at the pool, London, National Gallery; the return of the prodigal son, Washington, National Gallery), joined to the sophistication of color and high quality formal, have made of the compositions of Murillo subjects the most popular of the religious oleografia (thinking of the innumerable versions of the Immaculate Conception, of which some in Madrid Prado), which has come to alter, in wear of the image, the real and high artistic value. The cycles of the paintings of genus popolaresco (boys who eat fruit, Monaco, Alte Pinakothek Galician; the window, Washington, National Gallery), effective openings on the picaresque world that inaugurated a genre destinatoa great success until the Eighteenth Century submitted, and the portraits of the naturalistic setting (gentleman with collar, Madrid, Prado), will contribute to clarifying the deepest inspiration of the artist, which aims to enhance the expressive possibilities of color, sometimes with compiacimenti virtuous. "To deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" "to deepen See Gedea Art vol. 7 pp 262-269" The Lexicon Sm. [From French rococo, alteration, light-hearted of rocaille]. The decorative style which developed in Paris around 1730 and that dominated on other styles for about twenty years, spreading and then right toward the end of the century in the northern regions of France, Italy and Central Europe up to Russia. With value of Adj., belonging to, exactly this style: mobile, facade, rococo taste; for extension, artificial lambiccato, but not without grace: a hairstyle rococo. Art: in France Fiercely opposed by contemporary classicistiche currents and tardobarocche, the rococo was considered negatively throughout the nineteenth century until the first critical analysis carried out by the brothers De Goncourt, who warned both the close relationship with a particular conception of social life, both the aesthetic revolutionary informing him. Ideologically the rococo is the artistic expression of the aristocracy of the cosmopolitan come at the end of its historical function, which masks the conscience of the decline with a philosophy of evasion from reality, creating a fictional world on the myth of the eternal youth and of the unruffled serenity. Social behavior is then adjusted on concepts of refinement and elegance, until the frivolity of the one part and the philosophical libertinism from another. The escape from reality occurs both on the intellectual level and on the existential and every detail of the environment should be granted to the way of life: everything must be beautiful, indeed "nice", since the concept of beauty comprises itself only what is delicate and fragile, nuanced, clear, picturesque. Under this aspect we understand then the "necessity" of a particular type of clothing (vestments read of silk and muslin in pastel shades, white wig which embellishes the face and makes without age, then eternally young), which corresponds to a particular type of environment in which to live. The aesthetic revolution of the rococo occurs in fact in the harmonious interplay of all the details of the furnishings, which contribute equally to all the arts (and the "minor" are evaluated obviously on a par with those traditionally "noble") refer to the creation of organic environments and homogeneous. The historical fact from which you begin the rococo (even if the premises are traceable since the last years of the XVII century) is the transfer of the court from Versailles in Paris after the death of Louis XIV (1715), commissioned by the regent Duke of Orléans, the fact that determined for the nobility the need to reorganize the private palaces of the capital, by long years inhabited only occasionally. To obviate the confined spaces developed rapidly in the period of the regency the taste for the pale walls, "open" by the profusion of mirrors and illeggiadrite stucco work light for the small furniture and lacquered in pastel shades, for executives also from the light shades, for the ornaments of minimum size and subject frivolous, in clear opposition to furnishings Louis XIV, sumptuous (but also heavy) dominated by dark colors and by the gilding. Rare were in France the great architectural realizations, which usufruirono structures baroque still as much as very sober and functional, aimed in practice as a support of the decoration, most of that interior facades, inferred from a whole series of repertories (it is recalled that in 1734 by J. A. Meissonnier, whose drawings influenced deeply on production of carvers and goldsmiths of the epoch); this decoration was based on infinite variations, better if asymmetrical, the curved line which defined natural elements (leaves, flowers, animals) according to a spirit graceful that often referred to exotic elegance and fabulous of the East (masterpieces in this sense are the Hôtel de Matignon of No. Pineau of 1720-31 and the Hôtel de Soubise of G. Boffrand, also decorated by F. Boucher, 1736). In the french architecture are in fact much more frequent the constructions of small dimensions for parks and gardens (readapted sometimes these "English" according to the canons of the picturesque, more suited to the new taste): the pavilions of hunting, the "Casini of delights", sans-soucis, the monrepos, the ermitages, all connected with the needs of worldly life. The sculpture was a fine decorative exclusively, softening the shapes, enriched by descriptive details and generally portraying mythological characters according to a declared intention erotic. The painting, from the clear color and brilliant spread out to touch and nuances on a quick drawing and broken, has narrow analogies with the porcelain, engraving, the fabrics for furnishings, since depicts pastoral scenes, idylls, feasts galanti and campestri, erotic episodes, Daily chronicles, expressing with ironic accents malicious or the principles of a life frivolous but refined. For France it is customary to distinguish a first period Regency (1715-30) in the generation of the architect G. M. Oppenordt of decorator F. A. Vassé and of the ebanist Ch. Cressent, of painters J.-A. Watteau, J. B. Pater and J.-M. Nattier; a period rocaille (1730-45) that finds its highest expression in Meissonnier, Pineau, in Boucher and Chardin; a last period Pompadour (1745-64) involuto already in certain decorative unwieldiness and in part influenced by linearismo classicist, represented by the architect J. A. Gabriel, decorating by J. Verbeckt and J. H. Fragonard. Art: in other European Countries Outside France the rococo became widespread in short assolutistiche that assumed as a model of social life the French nobility, idealized as depositary of knowing how to live and taste. In the decade 1730-40 artists and French craftsmen were in fact invited in all the courts of Europe starting with the phenomenon of internationalisation of the figurative culture typical of the entire second half of the century. This phenomenon lived precisely on the figure of the wandering artist (For Italy it suffices to think of Tiepolo and Rosalba Carriera), which stimulated above all the development of Crafts on the canons are common to the whole of Europe, according to a process governed not only by the evolution of taste but also, and declared by the same rulers, by the laws of economic expansion. Similar movements to rococo, even if not totally identified with it, were manifested in England (in furniture Chippendale, through whose interpretations, moreover, the rococo taste was introduced in America and in certain themes pictorial from Hogarth to Gainsborough) and in Spain (churriguerismo). For Italy it can speak of rococo especially for decorative arts, sharers in the international taste (the stuccoes by Serpotta; the "Chinese cabinet" for the Palace of Portici, now at Capodimonte, everything in porcelain and mirrors), while architectural constructions to capricious plants curves took place only in private buildings of small dimensions (Villa Palagonia in Bagheria near Palermo), being still alive the baroque tradition, linked in particular to the committenza ecclesiastical. For what concerns the Italian mobile, the taste of the French rococo developed through the partial adoption of stylistic elements of Louis XV and the progressive transformation of elements of the Baroque ornamentation (style Baroque). In Venice, in the framework of the independent development (and addressed in large part to the foreign clients) of that painting, you can define in the Rococo style the choice of subjects as the whim, fantastic view and the scene of life (Marco Ricci, Zais, Guardi and Longhi) and the widespread use of pastel and watercolor (Rosalba Carriera). The style of the rococo met its major development in the German-speaking countries according to two destinations precise and clearly differentiated: on the one hand the architecture and the craft to the courts, who elaborated also original forms but always inside the French model, on the other hand the architecture, understood as a synthesis between space and decoration, of churches and convents, that represents the last great autonomous expression of this particular branch of the architecture. Around the numerous German courts proliferarono castles, the noble residences, small constructions of pleasure, that assumed in size emphatic or even rhetorical plants to curved lines and elliptical of private construction french (only the royal castles you remade the monumentality classicist Versailles) and developed the decoration in tones more or less moderate, according to precise local variants (residence for the prince-bishop of Würzburg, 1719-44, B. Neumann, with the collaboration of R. de cooked and J. L. Hildebrandt, and frescoes by Tiepolo; Palazzina di Caccia of Amalienburg In Park Nymphenburg in Munich, 1734, F. de Cuvilliés). Religious architecture flourished particularly in Bavaria and in Bohemia, with the brothers Asam, D. Zimmermann, Dientzenhofer and, in Austria, especially with Fischer von Erlach, who developed premises already existing in the architecture local tardobarocca to arrive to build buildings characterised by the spaciousness and brightness (a unique space to plant round, elliptical or oval, white walls, large and numerous windows, stuccoes and gilding that underline the structural elements and framing canvases and frescoes), where they perform a perfect harmony and an interrelation total between the constructive elements and figurative ones. Also the pictorial production not assumed an autonomous role but, given the particular needs, was directed almost exclusively to illustrate historical subjects-celebration in allegorical tones-mythological or religious themes; it then developed into large canvases and frescoes that, despite the considerable lightness and vaporosità execution, derive from the baroque decoration Italiana (F. A. Maulbertsch, J. W. Bergl). General description Loc. English (abbreviation of popular art, popular art) used in Italian as sf. Introduced by scholars L. Flieder and R. Banham and adopted in 1961 by the critic English L. Alloway, the term indicates an artistic movement of avant-garde born in parallel in Great Britain and the United States around 1955, as a reaction to the painting of abstract expressionists. The artists of the pop art draw shapes and language from the repertoire of the mass-media, i.e. of the means of communication and mass culture: television, advertising images, photographs, comics, consumables, etc.; they therefore serve images and objects that already exist as, manipulated and presented in various ways, you load a new expressiveness. The aim of the movement is to subtract the artistic operation to its character of unique experience and subjective, for riaccostare instead art to everyday reality. The figuration of the trivial and daily life of pop art, mediated by the different experiences of Cubism, Futurism, Dadaism and Surrealism, had its first definition in Great Britain through the activities of the Independent Group of London (1953-58). The first opera English pop, created by Richard Hamilton, was inscribed in the exhibition "This Is Tomorrow" held in London in 1956. In the United States the pop art arose from the exhaustion of abstract experiences, by the stops at the end of the informal and especially by exaltations of the "object consumed" by artists of the New Dada.
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